Borobudur is a ninth-century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six
square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main
dome is located at the center of the top platform, and is surrounded by seventy-two Buddha statues seated inside perforated
stupa.
The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the
base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of
Buddhist cosmology, namely, Kamadhatu (the world of desire); Rupadhatu (the world of forms); and Arupadhatu (the world of
formlessness). During the journey, the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460
narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.
Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java,
and the Javanese conversion to Islam. It was rediscovered in 1814 by Sir Thomas Raffles, the British ruler of Java. Borobudur
has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982
by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Borobudur
is still used for pilgrimage, where once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is
Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction
ETYMOLOGY
In Indonesian, temples are known as candi, thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term candi is
also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example, gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name
Borobudur however are unclear, although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known. The name
'Borobudur' was first written in the Sir Thomas Raffles book on Java history. Raffles wrote about a monument called
borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the
monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakertagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365.The name 'Bore-Budur', and thus 'BoroBudur', is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby
village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been
named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ('ancient') – i.e.,
'ancient Boro'. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name ('Budur') comes from Javanese term
bhudhara (or mountain).[
LOCATION
Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin
volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known
as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.
Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During
the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut,
are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native
folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three
temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which
suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed,
although exact ritual process is yet unknown.
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea
level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion
among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a
lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that
Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found
in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of
Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in
many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the
top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because
the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of
stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,
which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was
near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding
landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of
Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.
HISTORY
Construction Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform.There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose.
The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the
inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the eight and ninth centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800
AD. This corresponds to the period between 760–830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under
the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during
the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers
of Lord Buddha, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that
many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments,
including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite
King Sanjaya commissioned a Hindu Shiva lingga sanctuary to be built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 miles) east of
Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai
Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect,
Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD.This has
led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a
Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is
likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which
the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the
Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the
Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra
involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
ABANDONMENT
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a
mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Somewhere between 928 and
1006, the center of power moved to East Java region and a series of volcanic eruptions took place; it is not certain whether
the latter influenced the former but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.Soekmono (1976)
also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the fifteenth
century.
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious
beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the eighteenth century mention cases of
bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal
factor for a rebel who revolted against the king of Mataram in 1709. The hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated
and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated
with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the
monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon
returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.
REDISCOVERY
Following the Anglo-Dutch Java War, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was
Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javanese
antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour
to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to
make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate.
In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the
monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including
various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's
recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's attention.
Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole complex was finally
unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities;
in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842, Hartmann
investigated the main dome although what he discovered remains unknown as the main stupa remains empty.
The first photograph of Borobudur by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleared up.The Dutch East Indies
government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief
sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The
government intended to publish an article based on Brumund study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to
cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and
Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French
translation a year later. The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van
Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for
"souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely
disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the
government appointed Groenveldt, an archeologist, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual
condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.
Contemporary events
Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO, Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once
a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the
birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an
official national holiday in Indonesia and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to
Pawon and ending at Borobudur.
The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000 were
foreigners visited the monument. The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid
1990s, before the country's economy crisis. Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local
community on which occasional local conflict has arisen. In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized
several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-story mall complex, dubbed
the 'Java World'.
On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs. In 1991, a blind Muslim evangelist, Husein Ali Al Habsyie,
was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid 1980s including the temple attack.Two
other members of a right-wing extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986 and
another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on the Richter scale struck the
south coast of Central Java. The event had caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of
Yogyakarta, but Borobudur remained intact
ARCHITECTU
RE
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala,
simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118
meters (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The
upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced
by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring rivers to build the monument.The
stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form
joints between stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a
good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each
corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape of giants or makaras.
A carved giant water spout for water drainage.Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built
for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique is,
however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its general design similar to the
shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended
as a shrine for the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the monument's meticulous design
suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims
were guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of
enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.
Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.Little is known about the architect
Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. He
was said to be one who "... bears the measuring rod, knows division and thinks himself composed of parts." The basic unit
measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's
hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers
are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has
exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The
architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio formula was further found
in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala
dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor
Wat in Cambodia.
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot),
body, and top, which resembles the three major division of a human body.[38] The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft) square
in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The
first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft),
leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the highest
point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of
each side with a number of gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the
location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the
low-lying plain.
The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the
Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the
formless world). Kamadhatu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by
the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between three stages have metaphorical
differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the
Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms and names – changes into the world
of the formless.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are
narrative describing the real Kamadhatu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe
instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the scene to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the
purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous
subsidence of the monument through the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original
hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town
planning. Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and
religious compensation.
RELIEFS
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the
façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the
hidden foot (Kamadhatu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the
total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the
remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance
stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right.
This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while
keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs;
each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also
balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are
devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.
The law of karma (Karmavibhangga) The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.
There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also
praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara
(the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara) Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.Main article: The birth of
Buddha (Lalitavistara)The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the
Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya
of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to welcome the final incarnation of
the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future
Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb.
Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She
stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story
on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.
Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana) Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main
figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and
avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Sudhana.
The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala. The
remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some
jatakas stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha) Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the
Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total
of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th
panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at
Sravasti.
During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him completely. He was then
instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana
meets (in the following order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk
Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess
Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god
Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific
doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.
After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth
gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally
end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
BUDDHA STATUES
Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged
statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the
top platform (the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number
of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the
second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first
circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha
statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).
A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa.At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference
between them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith,
which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four
mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding
mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each
mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north),
Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and
Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith)
RESTORATION
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a
discovery about the hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The discovery led
the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission
consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer
officer, and Van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be
avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and
restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, fencing off the courtyards, providing proper
maintenance and improving drainage by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument
cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at
that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp.
The first seven months of his restoration was occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha
heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp
discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal that was approved with the
additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve
the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and
deterioration. Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest
of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.
Small restorations have been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection. In the late 1960s, the
Indonesian government had requested from the international community a major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a
master plan to restore Borobudur was created. The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of
the monument in a big restoration project between 1975–1982. The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned.
The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the drainage by embedding water channels
into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore
the monument and cost a total of US$ 6,901,243. After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World
Heritage Site in 1991
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Read More......
karena kau tetap saja hadir dan melintas mengisi setiap sudut sepi dan mimpi
In UteroFor 1993's In Utero, the band brought in producer Steve Albini, well-known for his work on the Pixies album Surfer Rosa. As Nevermind had brought in a new audience of listeners who had little or no experience with the alternative, obscure, or experimental bands Nirvana saw as their forebears, bringing in Albini appeared to be a deliberate move on Nirvana's part to give the album a raw, less-polished sound. For example, one song on In Utero featuring long periods of shrill feedback noise was titled, ironically, "Radio Friendly Unit Shifter" (in the industry, a "radio-friendly unit shifter" describes an "ideal" album: one capable of heavy radio play and ultimately selling many copies, or "units"). However, Cobain insisted that Albini's sound was simply the one he had always wanted Nirvana to have: a "natural" recording without layers of studio trickery. The sessions with Albini were productive and notably quick, and the album was recorded and mixed in two weeks for a cost of $25,000 at Pachyderm Studios in Cannon Falls, Minnesota.
Surabaya (formerly spelled as Soerabaja) is Indonesia's second-largest city, and the capital of the province of East Java. It
His first drug experience was with marijuana in 1980 at age 13. Cobain's first experience with heroin occurred sometime in 1986, administered to him by a local drug dealer in Tacoma, Washington, who had previously been supplying him with Percodan. Cobain used heroin sporadically for several years, but, by the end of 1990, his use had developed into a full-fledged addiction. Cobain claimed that he was "determined to get a habit" as a way to self-medicate his stomach condition. Related Cobain, "It started with three days in a row of doing heroin and I don't have a stomach pain. That was such a relief."
The Beatles were an early and important musical influence on Cobain. Cobain expressed a particular fondness for John Lennon, whom he called his "idol" in his journals. Cobain once related that he wrote "About a Girl" after spending three hours listening to Meet The Beatles!. He was heavily influenced by punk rock and hardcore punk, and often credited bands such as Black Flag and the Sex Pistols for his artistic style and attitude.
In May 2003, the band went into a studio in Woodstock, New York with Rob Schnapf again on production. While Craig Nicholls had talked of having a highly produced album, he told the Australian edition of Rolling Stone in March 2004 that they decided to stick to a less-is-more philosophy. "I wanted it to be - in my head - something grand, with big ideas and that vision sort of thing. But at the same time, that doesn't mean that something can't be special if it's just simple. Because I think that the songs are the main thing".
15 songs that may see inclusion on the fourth album were completed in December 2007 during a 5 day recording stint. In March 2008 the NME reported that The Vines fourth studio album had been completed during the week beginning March 3rd, 2008, with a tentative release date in June, 2008 for Australia. Front man, Craig Nicholls states five major labels from the United States have gone into their recording studio to have a listen to the album. He followed his statement up by saying they liked what they heard. He did not say what the labels in question were.
Sex, death, reptiles, charisma, and a unique variant of the electric blues gave the Doors an aura of profundity that not only survived but has grown during the 30 years since Jim Morrison's death. By themselves, Morrison's lyrics read like adolescent posturings, but with his sexually charged delivery, Ray Manzarek's dry organ, and Robby Krieger's jazzy guitar, they became eerie, powerful, almost shamanistic invocations that hinted at a familiarity with darker forces, and, in Morrison’s case, an obsession with excess and death. At its best, the Doors’ music — “Light My Fire,” “L.A. Woman” — has come to evoke a noirish view of ’60s California that contrasts sharply with the era’s prevailing folky, trippy style.
Most major cities, especially on Java, have one or more venues that have a dangdut show several times a week. The concerts of major dangdut stars are also broadcast on television. In 2003 singer Inul Daratista became the subject of much controversy and criticism from conservatives over her suggestive, erotic style of dancing during televised shows. 
